Sixty years ago today, filming began at the Desilu Culver City lot on the Star Trek pilot episode, “The Cage.”
This OTOY video featurette includes an interview with Robert Butler, who directed the pilot.
For the 30th anniversary of Star Trek Generations, OTOY and the Roddenberry Archive have released an eight-minute short film titled 765874 Unification.
Thanks to the miracle of modern technologies, William Shatner was able to reprise James T. Kirk as he appeared in Generations. Actor Sam Witwer portrayed Kirk was he appeared in the original series and the six original cast films.
Click here for the OTOY press release.
OTOY released cast interviews to accompany the film.
Previously on The Written Trek …
“The Cage” was shown to Desilu executives, to network suits, to test audiences. The mythology we're told today is that NBC rejected the pilot because it was “too cerebral,” but that's not true. Both David Alexander's authorized biography and the Solow & Justman book confirm that NBC liked the pilot. The problem was that NBC needed to sell ad time; the network executives thought “The Cage” was fine for a regular weekly episode, but not as a sample for potential sponsors. The pilot did serve to demonstrate that Desilu, primarily known for half-hour sitcoms, could produce a high-quality effects-driven one-hour drama; perhaps as good as ABC's Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea produced by Irwin Allen at 20th Century Fox.
The “too cerebral” excuse was a cover, according to Alexander, for NBC to save face while a second pilot was produced. According to Solow & Justman, “NBC was very concerned with the 'eroticism' of the pilot and what it foreshadowed for the ensuing series.” The network was also concerned that Spock's satanic appearance might offend Bible Belt advertisers.
But the studio and the network concurred that Star Trek had potential, so their executives agreed to fund a second pilot.
Commissioning a second pilot was quite unusual for its time. In retrospect, both Desilu and NBC really must have wanted Star Trek to succeed.
NBC seemed sold on the show. The second pilot's purpose was to sell the show to potential sponsors. With sponsors aboard, Gene Roddenberry would have more freedom to explore the story ideas he had in mind.
The second pilot also had to demonstrate to Desilu that Roddenberry could keep costs under control. No one had attempted a weekly one-hour TV show with the scale and vision he intended. The ABC TV series Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea was in its first season; Voyage was state-of-the-art for the network television of its day, but it had the advantage of sunken costs charged to its predecessor feature film. Many of its visual effects, such as the SSRN Seaview diving beneath an iceberg, had been created on a 1961 film budget and then recycled into the TV show. Everything for “The Cage” had to be built, sewn, glued, fabricated, imagined. According to Desilu executive Herb Solow, the first pilot was budgeted at $451,503 but ended up costing $615,751.
Just as Voyage had sunk its startup costs in its movie predecessor, Star Trek would recycle most of the first pilot's sets, props, and costumes. Voyage already had its Seaview. Star Trek already had its Enterprise.
Some props and costumes from Voyage found their way to Lost in Space, another Irwin Allen production on the 20th Century Fox lot. CBS passed on Star Trek in favor of Lost in Space. The Lost in Space pilot, which never aired, was in production around the same time as the second Star Trek pilot.
Desilu had proven to NBC that the studio could produce a high-quality one-hour program. In retrospect, that was the problem. NBC wanted Desilu to prove they could do it, and had chosen “The Cage” as a stress test of the studio's talents. NBC now realized that, instead, they should have chosen a pilot script that could sell the show to sponsors.
NBC and Desilu agreed to commission three more scripts. Desilu would select the scripts, and NBC would pay for them. The network and the studio would jointly agree on which script to produce. The second pilot would be budgeted at $215,644, far less than the first, because it was expected that Roddenberry would recycle the sets, costumes, and visual effects from “The Cage.”* Roddenberry wouldn't have the time to write all three scripts, so he would write one while the remaining two would be assigned to other writers. He also had to set aside production of the pilot for another series, called Police Story, that he hoped to produce for NBC.
The three scripts were:
NBC picked the Sam Peeples script.
Two months earlier, Peeples had written a ten-page memo with his thoughts about “The Cage” and what fixes might be needed for the second pilot. His first paragraph stated, “The mission or purpose of the ship is not defined in the pilot film. Planetary exploration team? Also galactic defense and colony protection?” This eventually would lead to the Star Trek opening narrative, which would incorporate the title of this episode.
Not all of Peeples' suggestions were adopted. Sam had sensed that Majel Barrett's Number One character would be unpopular with the network. That wasn't Majel's fault; the character was ahead of her time. Gene's affair with Majel was well known by his superiors at Desilu, a fact they shared with NBC. Number One's personality traits would be absorbed by Mister Spock. But Peeples did offer a suggestion that may have led to Majel's gig as the voice of the ship computer. He proposed that Number One be the ship computer! Number One would be an artificial intelligence in love with Captain Pike! This might explain why the computer in the series had a female voice, although it didn't have the stereotypical traits proposed by Peeples.
The AI romance with Captain Pike, or any other captain, was not to be. NBC was okay with Jeffrey Hunter returning, and Roddenberry wanted him back, but Hunter's wife disapproved of the first pilot so Hunter bowed out. (Hunter's contract required him to to do a pilot and the series. It didn't require him to do two pilots.) As we all know, William Shatner accepted the role, renamed James Tiberius Kirk.
The network remained nervous about the “satanic” Spock character. Roddenberry was adamant that Spock was necessary as a contrast with the rest of the crew. He told Stephen Whitfield in 1968, “I felt we couldn't do a space show without at least one person on board who constantly reminded you that you are out in space and in a world of the future.”
In his autobiography I Am Spock, Leonard Nimoy noted that Spock was the only character to survive from the first pilot. In “The Cage,” Nimoy had little direction for the character, other than he was a bridge officer who had learned English as a second language. In this second pilot, the Spock we came to know wasn't quite there just yet. Spock smirks, still bellows orders like a British first officer, and shows some emotion. But Spock also has some aspects of his trademark personality traits, as we'll discuss later. Nimoy received co-star credit, second billing behind the lead.
NBC sent Roddenberry a memo dated August 17, 1965 stating, “we are not only anxious but determined that members of minority groups be treated in a manner consistent with their role in society. While this applies to all racial minorities, obviously the principal reference is to the casting and depiction of Negroes.” In the first pilot, the cast had been nearly all white, except for an Asian assistant transporter operator who had no lines. Roddenberry now had license from the network to depict a crew more diverse than just a non-descript pointy-eared alien.
Lloyd Haynes was cast to play communications officer Alden. He became the first African-American cast in a Star Trek speaking role. Other African-Americans were cast as background extras. George Takei was cast as Sulu, who at this point was a physicist and head of the ship's astrosciences department. He would later helm the Enterprise while also having an interest in botany. James Doohan, a Canadian by birth (like Shatner), was cast as Engineering Officer Scott who, coincidentally, had a Scottish accent. Some sterotypes remained; Andrea Dromm, cast as Yeoman Smith was (like Yeoman Colt in “The Cage”) a glorified secretary. Star Trek was on its way to a more diverse and equitable future, but that was easier said than done.
Three characters met their demise. Gary Lockwood, Roddenberry's star in The Lieutenant, played Lieutenant Commander Gary Mitchell, who was the helmsman. Sally Kellerman played Dr. Elizabeth Dehner, a psychiatrist with a high ESP rating. In her time, ESP is a proven fact. (That certainly dates this episode!) Paul Carr played Lieutenant Lee Kelso, apparently the navigator.
Roddenberry wanted DeForest Kelley for the role of ship's doctor, but for one reason or another was unavailable for both pilots. Veteran character actor Paul Fix was hired to play Dr. Mark Piper.
As was “The Cage,” “Where No Man Has Gone Before” would be adapted as a first season episode. The version that aired was not quite the version that was filmed in 1965.
The original version was finally seen by the public in 2009, when it was included in a remastered Blu-Ray release of the original series. This version had a different opening, which you can watch above. This is what the network saw, not what we saw — until 2009.
In this version, the episode opens with a still shot of a spiral galaxy and a voiceover captain's log:
Enterprise log, Captain James Kirk commanding. We are leaving that vast cloud of stars and planets which we call our galaxy. Behind us — Earth, Mars, Venus, even our Sun are specks of dust. The question — what is out there in the black void beyond?
Until now, our mission has been that of space law regulation, contact with Earth colonies, and investigation of alien life. But now, a new task. A probe, out to where no man has gone before …”
This opening fulfills Sam Peeples' recommendation that the ship's mission be defined in the pilot. “The Cage” didn't have a captain's log. An early concept was to add the logs as a retrospective. In his book Inside Star Trek co-authored with Bob Justman, Herb Solow cited Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift as the inspiration for the captain's log. Lemuel Gulliver told of his travels as a retrospective.
I accepted what Swift wrote because he treated it as something that had already happened. Swift was merely telling me what had gone on, setting up and highlighting the adventure for me.
Solow recommended the same approach to Roddenberry. “The captain is setting up and recounting the particular adventure … using a flashback to move the action from the past to the present.” From this idea would emerge, “Captain's Log, Stardate …” “Where No Man Has Gone Before” is the first episode to use this writing device. In some early first season episodes, Kirk's log would be spoken as a retrospective, reporting what has already happened.
The opening scene introduces us to Kirk and Spock, as they play 3D chess. Kirk is pretty much the character we would come to know. Spock is still a work-in-progress, with much more upswept eyebrows, and a slightly different tint to his skin color. But this scene, the first scene, establishes right away the relationship between the two. Initiative versus logic. Spock thinks he'll have Kirk checkmated after the next move. Kirk surprises him with an “illogical” move. When Kirk suggests that he is irritated, Spock replies, “The fact one of my ancestors married a human female …” This is the first hint we have that Spock is of mixed ancestry. We already know more about him than we did in the first pilot.
Also note that only Spock has pointed sideburns. The other male characters didn't adapt the pointed sideburns until the series.
The crew uniforms remain the same three colors as in the first pilot — gold, blue, and tan. No redshirts. (Crew members die anyway …) Engineer Scott wears a tan shirt.
Female crew members also wear slacks (as they did in “The Cage”), but the script still reeks of sexism. Remembering NBC's rejection of a female first officer, the women in this pilot typically are in subordinate and somewhat nurturing roles. Gary Mitchell incessantly harasses and almost gropes several female crew members. During one tense moment on the bridge, he takes the hand of Yeoman Smith. A later version of the writers guide (April 1967) would call this out as “unbelievable.”
We join our characters in the turbolift, which opens to the bridge. (“The Cage” script referred to this as the “turbo-elevator.”) In this second pilot, the bridge is far more colorful than in the first. In general, the turbolift door, the rails, and the trim are now red. (We have to help NBC sell color TVs, remember?) The floor now has carpet.
In our blog article about “The Cage,” we mused about why both pilots used mental powers as a MacGuffin to advance the plot. In “The Cage,” the Talosians have the ability to create illusions. In “Where No Man Has Gone Before,” crew members with advanced "Esper Ratings" develop the powers to read minds, perform telekinesis, quickly absorb knowledge, even shoot lightning out of their hands. Although demonstrating such powers may require special effects, they're cheaper than, say, a starship locked in battle with a fleet of hostile battle cruisers.
The second pilot continues a favorite Roddenberry plot device, carried over from The Lieutenant. Scripts typically have a scene where the lead character captain has a moment of introspection and doubt. In “The Cage,” Captain Pike confided in the ship's doctor. In this episode, Kirk debates his dilemma with Spock, who calls him “Jim” in a private moment; their familiarity is established. After Mitchell kills Kelso and escapes, Kirk tells Dr. Piper, “My fault Mitchell got as far as he did.” Kirk sets off to confront Mitchell himself, not the most logical thing to do, but the first of many times we'll see Kirk take personal responsibility for the consequences of his actions — as often did Second Lieutenant William Tiberius Rice, Gary Lockwood's character in The Lieutenant.
Some random notes about lingo … In the first transporter scene, Scotty says, “Materializer ready, sir.” The script for “The Cage” specifically referred to the Transporter Room and an unnamed Transporter Chief. Why does Scotty call it the “materializer”? Who knows. (Kirk later refers to the Transporter Room.) The term “neutralize” is also used several times, such as “neutralize warp” and “neutralize controls.” The transporter is activated with the command, “Energize!” Maybe “-ize” sounded technical or spacey to a 1960s screenwriter. Sickbay is called the Dispensary, a term that lasts for the first few episodes of Season One. (Kirk also uses the term Sickbay.) “Dilithium” has yet to enter the Star Trek lexicon; in this episode, it's called just lithium. Perhaps lithium was chosen as a fuel because it can be used as a fuel in nuclear reactions. A tombstone is marked, “James R. Kirk” instead of “T.” for Tiberius. My guess is that the inconsistency in terminology was due to Roddenberry doing a rewrite of Peeples under time pressure, while also trying to get Police Story off the ground. This was, after all, only a pilot. Who knew if it would ever air.
But it would.
In February 1966, NBC notified Desilu that the network would buy the show. Roddenberry had about six months to start producing weekly episodes. “Where No Man Has Gone Before” would air as the third episode, on September 22, 1966, with a few editing changes. It bought the production team some time. Waste not.
* “Where No Man Has Gone Before” was budgeted at $215,644. It came in at $354,974.
Sources:
David Alexander, Star Trek Creator: The Authorized Biography of Gene Roddenberry (New York: ROC Books, 1994)
Franz Joseph, Star Fleet Technical Manual (New York: Ballantine Books, 1975)
Leonard Nimoy, I Am Spock (New York: Hyperion, 1995)
Herbert F. Solow and Robert H. Justman, Inside Star Trek: The Real Story (New York: Pocket Books, 1996)
Stephen E. Whitfield and Gene Roddenberry, The Making of Star Trek (New York: Ballantine Books, 1968, Sixth Printing, July 1970)
THE NEXT CAGE. The desperation of our series lead, caged and on exhibition like an animal, then offered a mate.
— “Star Trek Is,” First Draft, March 11, 1964
As discussed in our last article, Gene Roddenberry wrote (with the help of D.C. Fontana) a sixteen-page outline to describe for potential studios and networks his proposed television series. The document was titled, “Star Trek Is …”. The outline had 24 one-paragraph ideas for potential stories.
The first story, on page one, was “The Next Cage.”
Many books have been written about this seminal time. Different accounts suggest the pilot was to be one hour, 90 minutes, even two hours. According to one account, Roddenberry suggested that, if an extended version flopped, it could air as a TV movie. The final version was one hour.
Studio executive Herb Solow, Roddenberry's patron saint at Desilu, wrote in Inside Star Trek: The Real Story that meetings were held in the spring of 1964 between Gene, Desilu, and NBC to hear a number of story ideas “before one of them was chosen as the basis for the pilot script.” The final choice, alternately titled “The Cage” or “The Menagerie,” went through “many hours straightening out the twists, turns, and bends in the plot” before Roddenberry began to write the script.
It appears that Roddenberry may have melded “The Next Cage” with another story idea from his sixteen-page outline:
A MATTER OF CHOICE. Another entrapment story, i.e., a planet in which the intelligent life has achieved no great material success but instead, has learned the power to live and relieve over and over again in different ways, any portion of their past life they choose. This is a starring vehicle for Captain Robert M. April as he is presented with the chance to do those certain things all over again.
Both “The Cage” and the second pilot, “Where No Man Has Gone Before,” relied on mental powers as a plot device. In “The Cage,” a race called the Talosians use their telepathic powers to create illusions that manipulate life forms imprisoned in their menagerie. Mental or psychic powers would become a staple of Star Trek plots and character traits. Spock and the Vulcan race in future episodes are telepaths. In The Next Generation, Betazoids are telepathic, although Deanna Troi is only empathic because her father was human (just as Spock's mother was human).
Several early first season episodes featured plots involving mental powers. “The Day Charlie Became God” was the second story idea listed in Roddenberry's 1964 outline, right after “The Next Cage.” It became “Charlie X” about an immature young man who uses his telepathic powers to manipulate crew members. Another early episode, “Dagger of the Mind,” explored the altering of memories using futuristic technologies. In “Shore Leave,” the crew encounters a pleasure planet where fantasies become reality. This bears some resemblance to another 1964 outline pitch, named “The Man Trap,” which has nothing in common with the episode that did air with that name; in the original pitch, crew members encounter apparitions that are “wish-fulfillment traps.”
Did Roddenberry genuinely believe in psychic phenomena? Reviewing the available literature, the answer appears to be no, although we know that Gene certainly believed in the human mind's potential. Mental powers have long been one tool in the speculative fiction writer's toolbox. By the early 1960s, telepathy was a staple of SF writing.
Roddenberry did have a mid-1970s dalliance with the paranormal. It's not discussed in his authorized biography, Star Trek Creator, but the unauthorized biography, Gene Roddenberry: The Myth and the Man Behind Star Trek by Joel Engel, dedicates part of a chapter to Gene's involvement with a group calling itself “Lab 9” based in Ossining, New York. Their leader claimed to be in telepathic communication with extraterrestrials known as “The Nine.” Several self-proclaimed psychics and parapsychologists lived on the property. The group offered Roddenberry $25,000 to write a screenplay about The Nine's arrival.
Engel writes that he believes Roddenberry was a skeptic, but was open to the project because he needed the money. In the end, Gene produced a screenplay, which was rejected by the group.
In any case, it remains an unexplained historical curiosity as to why, for his first foray into science fiction, Roddenberry chose psychic phenomena as a common theme. Perhaps he (or the network) thought that was what would sell. Roddenberry was unfamiliar with the science fiction current for his time, so he turned to his friend Sam Peeples, best known for writing Westerns, but who was also a science fiction enthusiast. Peeples would go on to write the script for the second pilot, “Where No Man Has Gone Before,” in which certain crewmembers with heightened ESP ratings suddenly become godlike. Perhaps Sam was the Jiminy Cricket on Gene's shoulder; he introduced Roddenberry to several science fiction writers, such as Harlan Ellison.
Peeples loaned Roddenberry a book by Olaf Stapledon, a science fiction writer who had passed in 1950. According to Star Trek Creator, Peeples told author David Alexander that Stapledon's 1930 novel Last and First Men was “instrumental in the development of the Star Trek format.” In a passage that could describe the Talosians, Stapledon wrote that his “Second Men … conceived that the ideal community should be knit into one mind by each unique individual's direct telepathic apprehension of the experience of all his fellows.” Stapledon described the Second Men as having a “more roomy cranium.”
But the comparison is superficial at best. The Second Men are much larger and athletic in stature, and capable of maintaining an idyllic paradise, whereas the Talosians went underground and withered. They have lost the ability to maintain their infrastructure. The Second Men went into decline as their brains became “overgrown” eventually devolving into imbecility.
Roddenberry borrowed from other resources to design the USS Enterprise. The original 16-page outline offered no clue. Neither does the first draft of the script. The first page describes the Enterprise as, “Obviously not a primitive 'rocket ship' but rather a true space vessel, suggesting unique arrangements and exciting capabilities.” The script has very few exterior shots of the starship, so what it looks like remains a mystery. Few exterior shots also meant few expensive visual effects. Along with Sam Peeples, Gene went through hundreds of old “pulp” science fiction and fantasy magazine covers, some dating back to the 1930s, looking for inspiration. At the time, many space shows depicted a spaceship as a rocket or a flying saucer. Roddenberry wanted his starship to be unique.
Another unknown was the look of the alien science officer, Mister Spock.
In his March 1964 outline, Roddenberry described Spock as the ship's “First Lieutenant.” Roddenberry wrote, “… the first view of him can be almost frightening — a face so heavy-lidded and satanic you might almost expect him to have a forked tail. Probably half Martian, he has a slightly reddish complexion and semi-pointed ears.”
The October 1964 first draft of “The Cage” didn't change Spock much:
The only exception to the familiar types represented by the crew, Mister Spock is of partly alien extraction, his reddish skin, heavy-lidded eyes and slightly-pointed ears give him an almost satanic look. But in complete contrast is his unusual gentle manner and tone. He speaks with the almost British accent of one who has learned the language in textbooks.
This explains Spock's odd speech pattern in the first two pilots and early episodes. The accent eventually was ditched.
The reddish complexion posed a more difficult problem. In 1964, most US households still had black-and-white television sets. NBC blazed the trail for color programs; Star Trek, if it made the schedule, would be telecast in color. But as of January 1, 1965, only 2.8 million US households had color TVs. Although the show would be filmed in color, most households would see it in black-and-white. How would it appear?
Makeup tests were conducted to see how a reddish Spock would appear in black-and-white. Leonard Nimoy wrote in his 1995 autobiography, I Am Spock, that the red makeup “simply turned Spock's face jet-black” on a black-and-white TV. As is well known, the final skin tone was a yellowish-green, which looked better on the typical TV set of the day.
Majel Barrett, cast as Number One, was used by Roddenberry to test the green Orion makeup that would later be worn by Susan Oliver. Roddenberry originally envisioned the Orion version of Vina having “strawberry roan” hair, which explains why Majel's hair is that color seen in the above image. The film lab didn't understand that Vina was supposed to be green, so they kept color-correcting the image. That was soon fixed.
In the above image, Nimoy's ears are barely pointed. He and makeup artist Fred Phillips eventually came up with the version we all know, but still the network was nervous about Spock's satanic look. More about that in a future blog article.
Many blanks remained on the Spock résumé. The script no longer referred to Spock as being from Mars, apparently because it was thought the Enterprise might one day visit Mars and the production team didn't want to be locked into what a Martian might look like. (Besides, by 1964 we had a pretty good idea that no sentient life existed on Mars.) But there was no mention of Vulcan, or any other planet of origin. Nor was Spock the cool emotion suppressor that we came to know; in fact, he smiles when he discovers the singing plants. That smile is in the script — Spock “grins in relief as he points out the source.” (In the final cut, Captain Pike finds the plants.)
Fun fact … In his autobiography, Nimoy wrote that he was the one who came up with the idea of pointed sideburns. In “The Cage,” only Spock has them, to indicate his alien nature. The look eventually was adapted for all male crew members.
In any case, the basic format had been established. The captain, as central character, must resolve a problem with the able assistance of his crew. After the problem is resolved, the captain extends a gesture of reconciliation, trying to make friends of enemies. After his release, Pike offers to assist the Talosians in repopulating their surface by establishing trade relations; the Talosians decline, but nonetheless reconciliation becomes a recurring theme for Star Trek story-telling.
Much is already familiar. It's the starship we know, and the bridge we know, although not as colorful as we'll see later. The crew uniforms come in three colors — gold, blue, and tan. The delta insignias already have the different symbols for the three divisions — command, sciences, and engineering and support services. Number One, the first officer, sits at the helm, per the script. “First Lieutenant”Spock, described in the script as the science officer, seems to have no fixed position, roaming the bridge to observe readings and report to the captain. We see the bridge, we see the transporter room, we see a conference room, and we see the captain's quarters, but we don't see engineering or meet a chief engineer.
The script and casting very much reflect the sexism and prejudice of American culture at the time. Number One is the only female officer on the bridge. No African-American or Hispanic actors are in the cast; an Asian who may be Japanese assists the transporter chief. (The Asian briefly wears glasses, then takes them off; perhaps the director told him there are no spectacles in the future!) Roddenberry may have intended to test the boundaries of cultural intolerance, but he also needed to sell the show first, which meant not offending potential sponsors.
Nor is there any mention of Starfleet or a Federation. "USS" stands for United Space Ship. Pike tells the Talosians he's from “a stellar group at the other end of this galaxy.” The illusory stranded scientists ask how Earth is, but no other planet or political entity is mentioned.
“The Cage” was shown to Desilu executives, to network suits, to test audiences. The mythology we're told today is that NBC rejected the pilot because it was “too cerebral,” but that's not true. Both David Alexander's authorized biography and the Solow & Justman book confirm that NBC liked the pilot. The problem was that NBC needed to sell ad time; the network executives thought “The Cage” was fine for a regular weekly episode, but not as a sample for potential sponsors. The pilot did serve to demonstrate that Desilu, primarily known for half-hour sitcoms, could produce a high-quality effects-driven one-hour drama; perhaps as good as ABC's Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea produced by Irwin Allen at 20th Century Fox.
The “too cerebral” excuse was a cover, according to Alexander, for NBC to save face while a second pilot was produced. According to Solow & Justman, “NBC was very concerned with the 'eroticism' of the pilot and what it foreshadowed for the ensuing series.” The network was also concerned that Spock's satanic appearance might offend Bible Belt advertisers.
But the studio and the network concurred that Star Trek had potential, so their executives agreed to fund a second pilot.
To be continued …
Sources:
David Alexander, Star Trek Creator: The Authorized Biography of Gene Roddenberry (New York: ROC Books, 1994)
Joel Engel, Gene Roddenberry: The Myth and Man Behind Star Trek (New York: Hyperion, 1994)
Franz Joseph, Star Fleet Technical Manual (New York: Ballantine Books, 1975)
Leonard Nimoy, I Am Spock (New York: Hyperion, 1995)
Herbert F. Solow and Robert H. Justman, Inside Star Trek: The Real Story (New York: Pocket Books, 1996)